References

ADAS. 2025. “FARMSCOPER: A Decision Support Tool for Assessing Diffuse Agricultural Pollutant Loads.” https://adas.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/FARMSCOPER5_Description.pdf.
American Forests, Woodland Trust, and Centre for Sustainable Healthcare. 2024. “Tree Equity Score UK Map.” https://uk.treeequityscore.org/map.
Angers-Blondin, Sandra, Colm Bowe, Luke Kinross Bentley, Alex Owusu Amoakoh, Joe Bellis, Lucy Dowdall, Noémie Bonnin, et al. 2026. “Evaluating the Accuracy of the EcoservR Toolkit for Fine-Resolution Habitat Mapping.” Ecological Solutions and Evidence 7 (2): e70234. https://doi.org/10.1002/2688-8319.70234.
Ares, Elena, and Jonathan Wentworth. 2024. “Biodiversity Loss and Nature Recovery.” Horizon Scanning. https://doi.org/10.58248/HS69.
Barbet-Massin, Morgane, Wilfried Thuiller, and Frederic Jiguet. 2012. “The Fate of European Breeding Birds Under Climate, Land-Use and Dispersal Scenarios.” Global Change Biology 18 (3): 881–90.
Beesley, Joe. 2025. “Access to Woodland in England.” Official Statistic. Northern Research Station, Roslin, UK: Forest Research, Forestry Commission. https://cdn.forestresearch.gov.uk/2025/05/Access-to-woodland-in-England-2025.pdf.
Berry, PM, TP Dawson, PA Harrison, and RG Pearson. 2002. “Modelling Potential Impacts of Climate Change on the Bioclimatic Envelope of Species in Britain and Ireland.” Global Ecology and Biogeography 11 (6): 453–62.
Beute, Femke, Maria Beatrice Andreucci, Annamaria Lammel, Zoe G. Davies, Julie Glanville, Hans Keune, Melissa Marselle, et al. 2020. “Types and Characteristics of Urban and Peri-Urban Green Spaces Having an Impact on Human Mental Health and Wellbeing.” Technical Report. Wallingford, UK: EKLIPSE Expert Working Group, UK Centre for Ecology & Hydrology. https://kar.kent.ac.uk/89644/.
Bignal, K., M. Ashmore, and S. Power. 2004. “The Ecological Effects of Diffuse Air Pollution from Road Transport.” Research Report 580. English Nature.
Binner, Amy, Greg Smith, I. J. Bateman, B. H. Day, M. Agarwala, and A. Harwood. 2017. “Valuing the Social and Environmental Contribution of Woodlands and Trees in England, Scotland and Wales.” Research Report. Edinburgh, UK: Forestry Commission. https://ore.exeter.ac.uk/articles/report/Valuing_the_social_and_environmental_contribution_of_woodlands_and_trees_in_England_Scotland_and_Wales/29727092.
Broadmeadow, Samantha, Tom Nisbet, Gregory Valatin, Eleanor Blyth, Emma Robinson, Alice Fitch, and Laurence Jones. 2023. “Revised Valuation of Flood Regulation Services of Existing Forest Cover to Inform Natural Capital Accounts.” Forest Research. https://www.forestresearch.gov.uk/publications/revised-valuation-of-flood-regulation-services-of-existing-forest-cover/.
Burns, Fiona, Sarah Mordue, Nida al Fulaij, Philipp H. Boersch-Supan, James Boswell, Robert J. Boyd, Tom Bradfer-Lawrence, et al. 2023. “State of Nature 2023.” State of Nature Partnership. https://stateofnature.org.uk/.
Butler, C. W. 2025. “Forestry England’s Wellbeing Trails: Impact and Experiences.” Technical Report. Forestry England. https://derby-repository.worktribe.com/output/976805/forestry-england-wellbeing-trails-report.
Cooper, Matt MD, Sopan D Patil, Thomas R Nisbet, Huw Thomas, Andrew R Smith, and Morag A McDonald. 2021. “Role of Forested Land for Natural Flood Management in the UK: A Review.” Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Water 8 (5): e1541.
Cranfield University. 2001. “NATMAP Vector: National Soil Map of England and Wales.” https://www.landis.org.uk/data/nmvector.cfm.
Critchlow, Rob, Charles A Cunningham, Humphrey QP Crick, Nicholas A Macgregor, Michael D Morecroft, James W Pearce-Higgins, Tom H Oliver, Matthew J Carroll, and Colin M Beale. 2022. “Multi-Taxa Spatial Conservation Planning Reveals Similar Priorities Between Taxa and Improved Protected Area Representation with Climate Change.” Biodiversity and Conservation 31 (2): 683–702.
DAERA, Scottish Government, Welsh Government, UK Government. 2025. “Blueprint for Halting and Reversing Biodiversity Loss: The UK’s National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan for 2030.” Department of Agriculture, Environment; Rural Affairs (DAERA).
DEFRA. 2020. “The Nature Recovery Network: A National Network of Wildlife-Rich Places to Increase and Restore Nature.” https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/nature-recovery-network.
DEFRA. 2023. “Nature for People, Climate and Wildlife.” UK Government. https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/nature-for-people-climate-and-wildlife/nature-for-people-climate-and-wildlife.
DEFRA. 2024. “30by30 on Land in England: Confirmed Criteria and Next Steps.” https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/criteria-for-30by30-on-land-in-england/30by30-on-land-in-england-confirmed-criteria-and-next-steps.
DEFRA. 2025a. “Agricultural Land Use in England at 1 June 2025.” Official Statistics, GOV.UK. https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/agricultural-land-use-in-england/agricultural-land-use-in-england-at-1-june-2025.
Defra. 2025. “Chapter 5: Access to Nature.” In Environmental Improvement Plan (EIP) 2025. Department for Environment, Food & Rural Affairs. https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/environmental-improvement-plan-2025/environmental-improvement-plan-eip-2025#chapter-5-access-to-nature.
DEFRA. 2025b. Ecosystem Services Databook Version 3.2. https://s3.eu-west-1.amazonaws.com/data.defra.gov.uk/ENCA/Jan_2025_Services_Databook_3.2_FinalV2.xlsm.
Defra. 2026a. “Access to Green and Blue Space in England.” Official Statistics. Department for Environment, Food & Rural Affairs. https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/access-to-green-and-blue-space-in-england/access-to-green-and-blue-space-in-england.
Defra. 2026b. “Technical Background: Access to Green and Blue Space in England.” Technical report. Department for Environment, Food & Rural Affairs. https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/access-to-green-and-blue-space-in-england/technical-background-access-to-green-and-blue-space-in-england.
Defra and Forestry Commission. 2021. “Maintain New Trees After Restocking.” Guidance. Department for Environment, Food & Rural Affairs; Forestry Commission. https://www.gov.uk/guidance/maintain-new-trees-after-restocking.
Department for Business, Energy & Industrial Strategy. 2021. “Valuation of Greenhouse Gas Emissions: For Policy Appraisal and Evaluation.” Policy paper, GOV.UK. https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/valuing-greenhouse-gas-emissions-in-policy-appraisal/valuation-of-greenhouse-gas-emissions-for-policy-appraisal-and-evaluation.
Dı́az, Sandra Myrna, Josef Settele, Eduardo Brondı́zio, Hien Ngo, Maximilien Guèze, John Agard, Almut Arneth, et al. 2019. “The Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services: Summary for Policy Makers.”
eftec. 2025. “Value of Forest Biodiversity - WC1127.” Research Report. Department for Environment, Food; Rural Affairs (Defra). https://sciencesearch.defra.gov.uk/ProjectDetails?ProjectId=21903.
Environment Agency. 2021a. “Agriculture and Rural Land Management: Challenges for the Water Environment.” Environment Agency. https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/agriculture-and-rural-land-management-challenges-for-the-water-environment.
Environment Agency. 2021b. “Evidence on the Costs of Floods in England and Wales.” Research Report (FCERM) FRS18208. Environment Agency / UK Government.
Environment Agency. 2021c. “Spatial Prioritisation of Catchments Suitable for Using Natural Flood Management.” Environment Agency. https://environment.data.gov.uk/dataset/2a4bcf6e-3880-4c0b-9986-6cafbec89faf.
Environment Agency. 2023a. “Challenges Data for England: Reasons for Not Achieving Good Status (RNAG).” https://environment.data.gov.uk/catchment-planning/England/rnags.
Environment Agency. 2023b. “The Natural Capital Register and Account Tool Version 1.2 - Technical Report.” Environment Agency. https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/natural-capital-register-and-account-tool.
Environment Agency. 2024a. “State of the Water Environment Indicator B3 – Supporting Evidence.” Environment Agency. https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/state-of-the-water-environment-indicator-b3-supporting-evidence/state-of-the-water-environment-indicator-b3-supporting-evidence.
Environment Agency. 2024b. “WFD Surface Water Operational Catchments – Cycle 2.” https://www.data.gov.uk/dataset/71581966-1935-411e-ab66-f32d960497e8/wfd-surface-water-operational-catchments-cycle-2.
Environment Agency. 2025a. “Flood Map for Planning (Rivers and Sea) - Flood Zone 2.” https://www.data.gov.uk/dataset/cf494c44-05cd-4060-a029-35937970c9c6/flood-map-for-planning-rivers-and-sea-flood-zone-2.
Environment Agency. 2025b. “WFD River Waterbody Catchments Cycle 2.” https://www.data.gov.uk/dataset/298258ee-c4a0-4505-a3b5-0e6585ecfdb2/wfd-river-waterbody-catchments-cycle-2; Environment Agency / Defra Data Services Platform.
Environmental Audit Committee. 2022. “Water Quality in Rivers.” Committee Report HC74. Third Report of Session 2022 – HC74. House of Commons, Environmental Audit Committee. https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm5802/cmselect/cmenvaud/74/report.html.
Forest Research. 2022. “Adapting Forest and Woodland Management to the Changing Climate.” UKFSPG026. UK Forestry Standard Practice Guide. Forest Research. https://cdn.forestresearch.gov.uk/2022/05/UKFSPG026.pdf.
Forest Research. 2024. “Ecological Site Classification Online Tool (ESC4).” http://www.forestdss.org.uk/geoforestdss/.
Forestry Commission. 2024a. “A Guide to Forestry Commission’s Sensitivity Maps for Woodland Creation: National Overview of the Full Sensitivity Map (Version 4.0).” https://www.gov.uk/guidance/a-guide-to-forestry-commissions-sensitivity-maps-for-woodland-creation#national-overview-of-the-full-sensitivity-map-version-40.
Forestry Commission. 2024b. “Key Performance Indicators.” https://www.gov.uk/government/collections/forestry-commission-corporate-plan-performance-indicators.
Forestry Commission. 2025. “Woods for All (WfA) Dataset.” Forestry Commission; Forestry Commission Open Data, ArcGIS Online. https://data-forestry.opendata.arcgis.com/datasets/cdcfc9ba854141ecbfaa6c51d91e7051_0.
Gill, R. M. A., and G. Morgan. 2010. “The Effects of Varying Deer Density on Natural Regeneration in Woodlands in Lowland Britain.” Forestry: An International Journal of Forest Research 83 (1): 53–63. https://doi.org/10.1093/forestry/cpp031.
Gregg, R, J. L. Elias, I Alonso, I. E. Crosher, P Muto, and M. D. Morecroft. 2021. Carbon Storage and Sequestration by Habitat (NERR094). York: Natural England.
Gromke, Christof, and Bodo Ruck. 2012. “Pollutant Concentrations in Street Canyons of Different Aspect Ratio with Avenues of Trees for Various Wind Directions.” Boundary-Layer Meteorology 144:41–64.
Herbert, S., A. Hotchkiss, C. Reid, and K. Hornigold. 2022. “Woodland Creation Guide.” The Woodland Trust. https://woodlandtrust.org.uk/media/50673/woodland-trust-woodland-creation-guide.pdf.
HM Treasury. 2018. “Green Book Supplementary Guidance: Discounting.” Supplementary guidance to the Green Book, GOV.UK. https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/698f30a4492ea446ea7f43d3/Green_Book_supplementary_guidance_-_discounting.pdf.
HM Treasury. 2026. “GDP Deflators at Market Prices, and Money GDP: March 2026 (Spring Statement).” Official statistics, GOV.UK. https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/gdp-deflators-at-market-prices-and-money-gdp-march-2026-spring-statement.
Hollis, M.; Kendon Met Office;, D.; McCarthy. 2022. “HadUK-Grid Gridded Climate Observations on a 12km grid over the UK, v1.1.0.0 (1836-2021).” Met Office. https://doi.org/10.5285/652cea3b8b4446f7bff73be0ce99ba0f.
Institute for Fiscal Studies. 2024. “Air pollution in England reaches 20-year low, but inequalities persist.” https://ifs.org.uk/news/air-pollution-england-reaches-20-year-low-inequalities-persist.
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). 2023. Summary for Policymakers. In: Climate Change 2023: Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working Groups i, II and III to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Edited by H. Lee Core Writing Team and J. Romero. Geneva, Switzerland: IPCC. https://doi.org/10.59327/IPCC/AR6-9789291691647.001.
Johnston, A. E., and C. J. Dawson. 2005. “Phosphorus in Agriculture and in Relation to Water Quality.” Agricultural Industries Confederation. https://www.triedandtested.org.uk/media/psnonuyx/phosphorus-in-agriculture-and-in-relation-to-water-quality.pdf.
LEEP Institute, U. of Exeter. 2018. “Outdoor Recreation Valuation Tool (ORVal), Version 2.0.” Web-based tool. https://leep.exeter.ac.uk/orval/.
Linden, Jenny, Malin Gustafsson, Johan Uddling, Ågot Watne, and Håkan Pleijel. 2023. “Air Pollution Removal Through Deposition on Urban Vegetation: The Importance of Vegetation Characteristics.” Urban Forestry & Urban Greening 81:127843.
Liu, Canran, Pam M Berry, Terence P Dawson, and Richard G Pearson. 2005. “Selecting Thresholds of Occurrence in the Prediction of Species Distributions.” Ecography 28 (3): 385–93.
Liu, Canran, Matt White, and Graeme Newell. 2013. “Selecting Thresholds for the Prediction of Species Occurrence with Presence-Only Data.” Journal of Biogeography 40 (4): 778–89.
Ministry of Housing, Communities and Local Government. 2025. “English Indices of Deprivation 2025: Statistical Release.” https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/english-indices-of-deprivation-2025/english-indices-of-deprivation-2025-statistical-release.
Natural England. 2022. “Nutrient Neutrality Generic Methodology.” NECR459. Natural England. https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/nutrient-neutrality-generic-methodology.
Natural England. 2024a. “Accessible Greenspace Standard: User Guide.” Natural England. https://designatedsites.naturalengland.org.uk/GreenInfrastructure/downloads/Accessible%20Greenspace%20Standard%20User%20Guide.pdf.
Natural England. 2024b. “Evidence Base Development for Nature-Based Nutrient Mitigation Solutions – Literature Review.” NECR538. Natural England. https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/evidence-base-development-for-nature-based-nutrient-mitigation-solutions-literature-review.
Nemitz, Eiko, Massimo Vieno, Edward Carnell, Alice Fitch, Claudia Steadman, Philip Cryle, Mike Holland, et al. 2020. “Potential and Limitation of Air Pollution Mitigation by Vegetation and Uncertainties of Deposition-Based Evaluations.” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A 378 (2183).
Nisbet, Tom. 2022. Designing and Managing Forests and Woodlands to Reduce Flood Risk: UK Forestry Standard Practice Guide. Bristol, UK: Forestry Commission. https://www.forestresearch.gov.uk/publications/designing-and-managing-forests-and-woodlands-to-reduce-flood-risk/.
Nisbet, Tom, Martyn Silgram, Nadeem Shah, Katrina Morrow, and Samantha Broadmeadow. 2011. “Woodland for Water: Woodland Measures for Meeting Water Framework Directive Objectives.” Forest Research Monograph 4:156.
Nisbet, Tom, Gregory Valatin, Romany Vassell, and Robert Hattersley. 2025. “Validating Woodland Water Code metrics and methodologies.” Forest Research website. https://www.forestresearch.gov.uk/research/developing-a-woodland-water-code/.
Office for National Statistics. 2024a. “Pollution Removal 2007, 2011, 2015, 2030 - GeoPackage.” https://geoportal.statistics.gov.uk/maps/ons::pollution-removal-2007-2011-2015-2030-geopackage-1/about.
Office for National Statistics. 2024b. “UK Natural Capital Accounts 2024: Air Pollution Unrounded Numbers.” https://www.ons.gov.uk/economy/environmentalaccounts/adhocs/2651uknaturalcapitalaccounts2024airpollutionunroundednumbers.
Office for National Statistics. 2024c. “UK Natural Capital Accounts: 2024.” https://www.ons.gov.uk/economy/environmentalaccounts/bulletins/uknaturalcapitalaccounts/2024.
Ordnance Survey. 2024. “OS Multi-Modal Routing Network.” Ordnance Survey. https://www.ordnancesurvey.co.uk/products/os-multi-modal-routing-network.
Ordnance Survey. 2026. “AddressBase Premium.” Ordnance Survey. https://www.ordnancesurvey.co.uk/products/addressbase-premium.
Pearce-Higgins, JW, MA Ausden, CM Beale, TH Oliver, and HQP Crick. 2015. Research on the Assessment of Risks & Opportunities for Species in England as a Result of Climate Change.
Qin, Hongqiao, Bo Hong, Boze Huang, Xue Cui, and Ting Zhang. 2020. “How Dynamic Growth of Avenue Trees Affects Particulate Matter Dispersion: CFD Simulations in Street Canyons.” Sustainable Cities and Society 61:102331.
Rowe, E. C., K. Sawicka, E. Carnell, B. Bealey, C. Martín Hernandez, M. Vieno, A. Vigier, J. Scheffler, S. Tomlinson, and L. Jones. 2024. “Air Pollution Trends Report 2024: Critical Load and Critical Level Exceedances in the UK.” Report to Defra under Contract AQ0849, UKCEH project 07617. UK Centre for Ecology & Hydrology.
Royal College of Paediatrics and Child Health. 2016. Every Breath We Take: The Lifelong Impact of Air Pollution. Royal College of Paediatrics; Child Health.
Sangkham, Sarawut, Worradorn Phairuang, Samendra P Sherchan, Nattapon Pansakun, Narongsuk Munkong, Kritsada Sarndhong, Md Aminul Islam, and Pornpun Sakunkoo. 2024. “An Update on Adverse Health Effects from Exposure to PM2. 5.” Environmental Advances, 100603.
Saraev, Vadim, Liz O’Brien, Graham Valatin, and Max Bursnell. 2021. “Valuing the Mental Health Benefits of Woodlands.” Research Report. Forest Research. https://www.forestresearch.gov.uk/publications/valuing-the-mental-health-benefits-of-woodlands/.
Schulte-Uebbing, Lena, and Wim de Vries. 2018. “Global-Scale Impacts of Nitrogen Deposition on Tree Carbon Sequestration in Tropical, Temperate, and Boreal Forests: A Meta-Analysis.” Global Change Biology 24 (2): e416–31. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.13862.
Sharps, Katrina, Massimo Vieno, Rachel Beck, Sam Tomlinson, Ed Carnell, and Felicity Hayes. 2024. “NECR Reporting 2023 – Quantifying and Mapping Exceedances of Ozone Flux-Based Critical Levels for Vegetation in the UK in 2019 and 2020.” Report to the Department for Environment, Food \& Rural Affairs (Defra) under contract AQ0846. Bangor, UK: UK Centre for Ecology & Hydrology.
Synes, Nicholas W, Aurore Ponchon, Stephen CF Palmer, Patrick E Osborne, Greta Bocedi, Justin MJ Travis, and Kevin Watts. 2020. “Prioritising Conservation Actions for Biodiversity: Lessening the Impact from Habitat Fragmentation and Climate Change.” Biological Conservation 252:108819.
UK Government. 1995. “Environment Act 1995.” https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1995/25/contents.
UK Government. 2010. “The Air Quality Standards Regulations 2010.” https://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2010/1001/contents.
UK Government. 2018. “Explanatory Memorandum to the Environmental Permitting (England and Wales) (Amendment) Regulations 2018 (SI 2018/151).” UK Statutory Instruments Explanatory Memorandum. https://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2018/151/pdfs/uksiem_20180151_en.pdf.
UK Government. 2019. “UK Becomes First Major Economy to Pass Net Zero Emissions Law.” https://www.gov.uk/government/news/uk-becomes-first-major-economy-to-pass-net-zero-emissions-law.
VisitEngland. 2025. “England Visitor Attractions: Latest.” VisitBritain Research and Insights. https://www.visitbritain.org/research-insights/england-visitor-attractions-latest.
WCC. 2025. “Woodland Carbon Code Calculator.” https://www.woodlandcarboncode.org.uk/about/about-the-code.
Winn, Jonathan P., Chloe Bellamy, and Tom Fisher. 2018. “EcoServ‑GIS v.3.3: A Toolkit for Mapping Ecosystem Services (GB Scale).” NatureScot Research Report 954. NatureScot (Scottish Natural Heritage).